Wilderness Survival (Demo)

Understanding Water Needs

Water is your most crucial survival resource. Without it, the human body will typically survive only 3-4 days, depending on environmental conditions and individual factors.

Daily Water Requirements

• Minimum survival needs: 2-3 liters (64-96 oz) per day
• Hot environments: 4-6 liters (1-1.5 gallons) per day
• Physical exertion in heat: Up to 10 liters (2.5 gallons) per day

Dehydration impairs decision-making, reduces physical capacity, and ultimately leads to death. Always prioritize water procurement over other survival needs except for immediate first aid or urgent shelter in extreme conditions.

Signs of Dehydration

Monitor yourself and companions for:

• Reduced urine output (should be pale yellow, not dark amber)
• Dry mouth, lips, and mucous membranes
• Headache and dizziness
• Lethargy or confusion
• Decreased skin elasticity (pinched skin returns slowly)

Water Location Techniques

Surface Water Sources

• Flowing water (streams, rivers): Generally safer than standing water, but still requires purification
• Standing water (lakes, ponds): Higher risk of contamination but viable with proper treatment
• Springs: Often the safest natural source but still requires purification
• Snow and ice: Excellent sources but must be melted (don't eat directly as it lowers body temperature)

Hidden Water Sources

• Vegetation indicators: Look for cottonwoods, willows, sycamores, and other water-loving plants
• Animal trails: Often lead to water sources; follow downhill portions
• Geographic features: Check valleys, canyons, and natural depressions
• Morning dew: Can be collected from vegetation using cloth to absorb and wring out
• Rock crevices: Check depressions and cracks after rain

Water Collection Methods

Solar Still

1. Dig a hole approximately 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep in a sunny location
2. Place a clean collection container in the center
3. Cover the hole with clear plastic secured at the edges with rocks or soil
4. Place a small rock in the center of the plastic to create a depression above the container
5. Water vapor will condense on the underside of the plastic and drip into the container
6. Add green vegetation around the edges (not in the container) to increase yield
7. Yields approximately 0.5-1 liter per 24 hours depending on conditions

Transpiration Bag Method

1. Find a leafy, non-poisonous branch with no berries or unknown plants
2. Place a clear plastic bag over the branch, ensuring leaves are inside
3. Seal the bag tightly around the branch with cordage
4. Position the bag so water will collect at the lowest point
5. Water vapor from leaf transpiration will condense inside the bag
6. Each bag can yield approximately 0.5 liters per day in sunny conditions
7. Check and empty bags daily to prevent breakage

Rain Collection

1. Use tarps, ponchos, or large leaves arranged in funnel shapes
2. Direct collected water into containers
3. Set up before rainfall when possible
4. Use rocks or sticks to create depressions in collection surfaces

Sap Collection (Seasonal)

1. Identify appropriate trees (maple, birch, sycamore)
2. Tap trees by drilling or cutting small holes at a slight upward angle
3. Insert small tubes or fabricated spouts (hollowed twigs)
4. Hang containers to collect sap
5. Sap can be consumed directly but cooking improves flavor
6. Respect the tree by limiting taps to one per tree

Water Purification Methods

Boiling

• Primary method: Bring water to a full rolling boil for at least 1 minute (3 minutes above 6,500 feet elevation)
• Advantages: Kills all pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites)
• Disadvantages: Requires fire/fuel, doesn't remove chemical contaminants or improve taste

Filtration Methods

Commercial Filters

• Pump filters: Effective against bacteria and protozoa; some models filter viruses
• Gravity filters: Good for processing larger volumes without effort
• Straw-type filters: Useful for immediate drinking needs
• Bottle filters: Convenient for on-the-go purification

Improvised Filters

1. Basic sediment filter:

   • Cut the bottom off a plastic bottle
   • Place fine cloth at the neck
   • Layer charcoal from fire (cooled), sand, and gravel
   • Pour water through top, collect from bottom
   • Note: This removes particulates but does NOT kill pathogens

2. Charcoal filtration:

   • Burn hardwood completely until it becomes charcoal
   • Crush charcoal into small pieces
   • Layer in container between cloth or grass
   • Pour water through, repeat 3-4 times
   • Note: Improves taste and reduces some contaminants but doesn't eliminate biological threats

Chemical Purification

Chlorine (Household Bleach)

• Use only pure, unscented bleach (sodium hypochlorite 5-8%)
• Add 2 drops per liter or quart of clear water, 4 drops if cloudy
• Let stand 30 minutes (longer in cold water)
• Should have slight bleach odor; if not, repeat dose and wait 15 minutes
• Effectiveness decreases with time; bleach loses potency after 6 months

Iodine

• Liquid 2% solution: 5 drops per liter of clear water, 10 drops if cloudy
• Tablets: Follow package instructions (typically 1 tablet per liter)
• Let stand 30 minutes (longer in cold water)
• Not recommended for pregnant women, those with thyroid issues, or long-term use
• Improves taste by adding vitamin C after purification time completes

Potassium Permanganate

• Add crystals until water turns light pink
• Wait 30 minutes
• Don't use if water turns purple (too concentrated)
• Effective against many pathogens but not all

Solar Disinfection (SODIS)

1. Fill clear plastic bottles (PET bottles, not glass) with water
2. Ensure water is relatively clear (not highly turbid)
3. Place bottles on reflective surface in direct sunlight
4. Expose for at least 6 hours in full sun, or 2 days in cloudy conditions
5. UV radiation and heat will kill most pathogens
6. Works best in equatorial regions with strong sunlight

Combined Methods

For maximum safety, use multiple purification methods:

1. Filter to remove particulates and some microorganisms
2. Chemically treat or boil to kill remaining pathogens
3. Use charcoal filtration afterward to improve taste if needed

Water Storage and Transport

Container Options

• Commercial bottles: Durable but can be heavy
• Hydration bladders: Convenient for hiking but vulnerable to puncture
• Collapsible containers: Good balance of weight and capacity
• Natural containers: Bamboo, gourds, certain large leaves can be fashioned into temporary carriers
• Improvised containers: Plastic bags, condoms, animal bladders

Storage Best Practices

• Keep out of sunlight: Prevents algae growth and container degradation
• Use dark containers: Reduces biological growth
• Rotate stored water: Every 6 months for commercial bottled water
• Add oxygen: Open containers occasionally to prevent stagnation
• Separate uses: Designate containers for drinking vs. utility water

Water Conservation Techniques

• Morning/evening activities: Restrict heavy exertion to cooler hours
• Shade utilization: Stay in shade during hottest parts of day
• Breathing techniques: Breathe through nose to reduce moisture loss
• Food consideration: Limit protein intake which requires more water to metabolize
• Limit talking: Reduces moisture loss through respiration
• Sucking on small stones: Stimulates saliva production
• Wet cloth on head/neck: Cools body with minimal water use

Emergency Situations

When No Water is Available

1. Reduce activity: Conserve energy and minimize sweating
2. Find shade: Stay out of direct sun
3. Ration sweat, not water: Drink what you need when you have it
4. Avoid eating: Digestion requires water
5. Travel at night: If movement is necessary, move during cooler hours

Dangerous Water Sources to Avoid

• Salt water: Accelerates dehydration and causes hypernatremia
• Urine: Contains waste products that increase dehydration
• Blood: May contain pathogens and requires more water to metabolize
• Alcohol: Causes diuretic effect, increasing water loss
• Cactus flesh: Many species contain toxic alkaloids that can cause vomiting
• Stagnant water with visible contamination: High risk of waterborne disease
• Industrial areas: Potential chemical contamination

Using Questionable Water in True Emergencies

If faced with death from dehydration:

1. Filter water as thoroughly as possible using available materials
2. Use chemical treatment if available
3. Let water stand to allow particulates to settle
4. Drink minimal amounts initially to monitor body reaction
5. Be prepared to manage diarrhea or vomiting if they occur
6. Even contaminated water may extend survival time to reach help

Remember: Finding and purifying water should be your top priority in almost any wilderness survival situation. Your decision-making ability, physical stamina, and ultimate survival depend on maintaining proper hydration.

Understanding Shelter Priorities

The human body maintains a core temperature of approximately 98.6°F (37°C), with even small deviations potentially fatal. Shelter serves as your primary defense against environmental threats to this thermal balance.

Core Temperature Dangers

• Hypothermia: Core temperature below 95°F (35°C)

  • Initial symptoms: Shivering, confusion, fumbling hands
  • Advanced symptoms: Slurred speech, drowsiness, irrational behavior
  • Critical: Loss of shivering, unconsciousness, death

• Hyperthermia: Core temperature above 104°F (40°C)

  • Initial symptoms: Heavy sweating, flushed skin, headache
  • Advanced symptoms: Dizziness, nausea, rapid heartbeat
  • Critical: Cessation of sweating, confusion, seizures, death

The Survival Equation

Your shelter needs are determined by:

• Environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, wind)
• Available resources (natural materials, carried equipment)
• Physical condition (energy levels, injuries, hydration)
• Time constraints (daylight remaining, weather approaching)

Rule of Threes for Shelter

In extreme conditions:

• 3 hours without shelter in harsh environments can be fatal
• 3 days without water leads to incapacitation and death
• 3 weeks without food results in severe weakness and eventual death

Always prioritize shelter before food procurement in harsh conditions.

Site Selection Principles

Primary Considerations

1. Safety from natural hazards:

   • Avoid dead standing trees ("widowmakers")
   • Check for evidence of rockfalls or avalanche paths
   • Stay out of dry riverbeds (flash flood risk)
   • Examine surrounding trees for health and stability
   • Look up as well as around for hazards

2. Protection from elements:

   • Winter: Southern exposure in Northern Hemisphere for solar gain
   • Summer: Northern exposure in Northern Hemisphere for shade
   • Natural windbreaks (rock formations, dense vegetation)
   • Higher ground to avoid cold air pools that form in depressions
   • 100-200 feet from water sources (flooding risk, insects)

3. Proximity to resources:

   • Available building materials
   • Water source within reasonable distance
   • Dry firewood supply
   • Natural food sources if extended stay is expected

4. Signaling considerations:

   • Visibility from air/search paths if rescue is expected
   • Proximity to trails or known routes
   • Open area nearby for signal fires or ground signals

BLISS Method for Site Evaluation

• Blending: How well the site conceals your presence (if security is a concern)
• Low profile: Protection from wind and visibility
• Irregular shape: Natural features providing multiple benefits
• Small: Easier to heat and maintain
• Secluded: Away from hazards and unwanted encounters

Emergency Shelters (1-2 Hours Construction)

Debris Hut

1. Framework:

   • Find or create a ridgepole approximately 2 feet longer than your height
   • Prop one end 3-4 feet high against tree, stump, or rock
   • Ensure pole angle creates space for your body plus insulation

2. Ribbing:

   • Place sticks along both sides of ridgepole at 45° angle
   • Space ribs approximately 6-12 inches apart
   • Create a framework resembling fish skeleton

3. Waterproofing layer:

   • Add lattice of smaller sticks perpendicular to ribs
   • Optional: Add layer of vegetation, bark, or emergency blanket

4. Insulation:

   • Pile minimum 2 feet of leaves, grass, pine needles over entire structure
   • Thicker insulation equals better thermal protection
   • Compress outer layers to shed precipitation

5. Entrance:

   • Create small opening, ideally facing away from prevailing wind
   • Make a door from sticks, bark, or backpack
   • Plug entrance with debris after entering

Snow Cave

1. Location:

   • Find snowdrift at least 6 feet deep
   • Avoid avalanche-prone slopes
   • Test snow compaction for structural integrity

2. Excavation:

   • Dig entrance tunnel slightly upward into drift
   • Hollow sleeping chamber above entrance level
   • Shape ceiling into dome to prevent dripping

3. Ventilation:

   • Create air hole approximately 2 inches in diameter
   • Position vent in ceiling away from sleeping area
   • Mark external location of vent

4. Platform:

   • Create raised sleeping platform higher than entrance
   • Cold air sinks to lowest point, leaving warmer air at sleeping level
   • Use excavated snow blocks as wind barrier at entrance

5. Safety considerations:

   • Keep snow removal tool inside cave
   • Check vent regularly for blockage
   • Maintain minimum 18-inch thick walls and ceiling

Tarp Shelters

A-Frame Configuration

1. Stretch cordage between two trees at shoulder height
2. Drape tarp over line, creating triangular profile
3. Secure corners with stakes, rocks, or logs
4. Ensure tight pitch to prevent water pooling
5. Optionally add debris floor for insulation

Lean-To Configuration

1. Secure one edge of tarp at shoulder height
2. Angle tarp downward away from wind
3. Stake opposite edge to ground
4. Leave one or both ends open for access and ventilation
5. Build reflector wall for fire heat reflection

Emergency Poncho Shelter

1. Thread cordage through hood grommets
2. Secure cordage between trees
3. Pull sides outward and stake to ground
4. Reinforce with sticks as needed for stability
5. Use as emergency overhead cover

Semi-Permanent Shelters (4-8 Hours Construction)

Wickiup/Tipi Structure

1. Framework:

   • Select 10-15 straight poles 8-12 feet long
   • Arrange in conical formation with tops interlocking
   • Secure apex with cordage, notches, or natural tension
   • Space base poles 2-3 feet apart in circular pattern

2. Reinforcement:

   • Add horizontal supports between main poles
   • Create lattice structure for weatherproofing attachment

3. Weatherproofing:

   • Layer vegetation from bottom to top (shingle method)
   • Use large bark sheets, pine boughs, or other available materials
   • Ensure 2-3 layers minimum for effective weatherproofing
   • Leave smoke hole at top if incorporating fire

4. Entrance:

   • Create reinforced doorway facing away from prevailing winds
   • Construct door from stiff materials if extended use planned
   • Consider windbreak outside entrance

Lean-To with Reflector Wall

1. Main structure:

   • Secure horizontal support between two trees at chest height
   • Place angled supports from horizontal beam to ground
   • Add horizontal lattice for roofing material support

2. Weatherproofing:

   • Layer vegetation, bark, or synthetic materials from bottom to top
   • Ensure minimum 45° angle for rain runoff
   • Use finer materials as final layer for waterproofing

3. Reflector wall:

   • Build parallel wall 6-8 feet from open face
   • Use logs, rocks, or dense brush
   • Position fire between shelter and reflector
   • Angle reflector to direct heat into shelter

Debris Wall Shelter

1. Foundation:

   • Clear ground area approximately 8×4 feet
   • Create sleeping platform with light insulating materials

2. Wall construction:

   • Drive pairs of stakes vertically along perimeter
   • Weave horizontal branches between stakes
   • Pack gaps with leaves, moss, mud, or snow
   • Build walls 3-4 feet high minimum

3. Roof structure:

   • Place ridgepole across tallest wall sections
   • Add angled supports from ridgepole to wall tops
   • Create lattice of smaller branches across supports

4. Weatherproofing:

   • Layer bark, branches, or synthetic materials over roof
   • Add debris layer minimum 6 inches thick
   • Create drainage channels around shelter perimeter

Natural Shelters (Minimal Construction)

Cave/Rock Shelter Considerations

1. Safety assessment:

   • Check for animal signs (tracks, scat, hair, claw marks)
   • Examine ceiling stability
   • Test for air quality (use torch to verify oxygen levels)
   • Check for water seepage or flood evidence

2. Improvements:

   • Block portion of entrance to reduce opening size
   • Create windbreak at entrance
   • Establish drainage channels if needed
   • Build sleeping platform off ground

3. Limitations:

   • Difficulty controlling humidity
   • Potential for dangerous wildlife
   • Risk of rockfall or collapse
   • Limited ventilation for fires

Tree Well Shelter

1. Found under coniferous trees where branches have prevented snow accumulation
2. Enlarge natural space by carefully removing snow
3. Add insulating boughs to floor
4. Augment with emergency blanket or tarp if available
5. Excellent for emergency winter scenario

Fallen Tree Shelter

1. Find recently fallen tree with branches creating natural gap
2. Clear debris under raised trunk section
3. Weave additional branches to fill large gaps
4. Layer vegetation against windward side
5. Create insulated sleeping surface under trunk

Insulation and Bedding

Natural Insulating Materials (R-value per inch)

• Air (trapped, still): 5.0
• Pine needles (dry): 1.4
• Dry leaves: 1.0
• Grass (dry): 0.8
• Moss (dry): 0.9
• Snow (fresh): 1.0
• Softwoods: 1.4

Ground Insulation Priority

The earth can conduct body heat 24 times faster than still air, making ground insulation your highest priority for thermal regulation in any shelter.

Sleeping Surface Construction

1. Foundation layer:

   • Minimum 6 inches of non-compressible material (branches, bamboo)
   • Create flat, level surface larger than body dimensions

2. Insulation layer:

   • Add 8-12 inches of dry grass, leaves, or pine needles
   • Fluff materials to maximize air pockets
   • Replace when compressed to less than 50% original thickness

3. Moisture barrier (if available):

   • Place emergency blanket, garbage bag, or natural water-resistant materials between foundation and insulation
   • Ensure barrier extends beyond sleeping area edges

4. Comfort layer:

   • Add 2-3 inches of softest available materials
   • Change or air out regularly to prevent mold and moisture buildup

Fire Integration with Shelter

Safety Considerations

1. Ventilation:

   • Ensure carbon monoxide can escape
   • Create draft channels in enclosed shelters
   • Position fire appropriately for ventilation flow

2. Fire placement:

   • Minimum 3-4 feet from combustible materials
   • Clear overhead space completely
   • Prepare water or earth for emergency extinguishing

3. Fire reflectors:

   • Construct from green logs, rocks, or packed earth
   • Position behind fire, opposite shelter entrance
   • Height should match shelter opening
   • Angle slightly toward sleeping area

Dakota Fire Hole

1. Dig main hole 12-16 inches in diameter, 12 inches deep
2. Dig air intake tunnel connecting to bottom of main hole
3. Line with flat rocks if available
4. Creates efficient, low-smoke, wind-resistant fire
5. Ideal for concealment and fuel efficiency

Long Fire

1. Create elongated fire pit parallel to shelter opening
2. Length should approximately match sleeper's height
3. Contains multiple small fires along length
4. Allows even heat distribution across shelter
5. Requires more fuel but provides consistent warmth

Swedish Fire Torch

1. Select dry log approximately 2 feet tall
2. Cut cross pattern into top, extending 3/4 down log
3. Light top central intersection
4. Burns from center outward, creating self-feeding fire
5. Provides stable cooking surface and long burn time

Cold Weather Adaptations

Snow Insulation Techniques

• Snow walls: Build 3-foot minimum height around shelter
• Double walls: Create air gap between snow layers for increased insulation
• Compacted snow floor: Stomp snow firm, then add insulation layers
• Snow roof: 6-8 inches provides insulation without collapse risk

Body Heat Conservation

1. Thermal layers in shelter:

   • Create low ceiling (24-30 inches) to trap rising heat
   • Use reflective materials on ceiling when possible
   • Minimize shelter volume to reduce heating requirements

2. Body position optimization:

   • Curl into fetal position to reduce surface area
   • Elevate feet slightly if ground is cold
   • Position head away from entrance

3. Clothing management:

   • Keep clothing loose, not tight (compressed insulation loses value)
   • Layer multiple thin materials rather than fewer thick ones
   • Keep one layer to sleep in, dry other layers for morning
   • Change into dry socks before sleeping if possible

Warning Signs of Hypothermia

• Mild: Shivering, slurred speech, clumsiness, confusion
• Moderate: Violent shivering, difficulty speaking, poor coordination
• Severe: Shivering stops, extreme confusion, drowsiness, weak pulse

Emergency Rewarming Techniques

1. Body-to-body contact (remove wet clothing first)
2. Warm, sweet liquids (never alcohol)
3. Heat packs in armpits, groin, neck (never directly on skin)
4. Gradual rewarming to prevent shock

Hot Weather Adaptations

Shade Maximization

1. Double-roof technique:

   • Create main shelter roof
   • Add second layer 12 inches above primary roof
   • Air gap between layers provides insulation

2. Shade extensions:

   • Build awnings on east/west sides
   • Use light-colored or reflective materials when possible
   • Extend shade beyond shelter footprint

Cooling Methods

1. Evaporative cooling:

   • Hang damp (not wet) cloth across shelter entrance
   • Position shelter to capture prevailing winds
   • Rewet cloth as it dries

2. Air circulation:

   • Create multiple ventilation openings
   • Position openings to capture natural air currents
   • Consider raised flooring for under-shelter airflow

3. Underground cooling:

   • Dig shelter partially into ground where possible
   • Earth maintains more consistent temperature
   • Combine with shade for maximum effect

Warning Signs of Heat Illness

• Heat exhaustion: Heavy sweating, weakness, cold/clammy skin, nausea
• Heat stroke: Hot/dry skin, rapid pulse, confusion, potential unconsciousness

Emergency Cooling Techniques

1. Move to shade immediately
2. Apply water to major blood vessels (neck, armpits, groin)
3. Fan continuously to promote evaporation
4. Rehydrate slowly with water containing electrolytes if possible

Shelter Maintenance and Improvement

Daily Maintenance Tasks

1. Structural inspection:

   • Check support elements for shifting or weakness
   • Reinforce connections as needed
   • Test stability before relying on structure

2. Weatherproofing maintenance:

   • Replace displaced covering materials
   • Add new layers as previous ones compress
   • Seal new leaks immediately

3. Drainage management:

   • Clear channels after precipitation
   • Improve drainage patterns based on observed water flow
   • Address pooling or seepage promptly

Progressive Improvements for Extended Stays

1. Week one priorities:

   • Improve bedding comfort and insulation
   • Enhance weatherproofing
   • Create food preparation area

2. Week two priorities:

   • Build storage for resources and equipment
   • Improve fire management system
   • Create water collection/storage system

3. Extended stay improvements:

   • Separate sleeping and activity areas
   • Construct elevated storage platforms
   • Develop specialized work areas

Shelter Relocation Indicators

• Accumulating human waste concerns
• Depleted local resources
• Discovered hazards not initially apparent
• Seasonal changes requiring different shelter type
• Strategic considerations (visibility, proximity to resources)

Psychological Aspects of Shelter

The psychological impact of effective shelter cannot be overstated. A well-constructed shelter provides:

• Security: Protection from environmental threats reduces anxiety
• Control: Demonstrating mastery over environment improves confidence
• Privacy: Space for mental processing and emotional regulation
• Normality: Established routines centered around shelter maintain mental well-being
• Hope: Tangible accomplishment provides evidence of survival capability

Creating Psychological Comfort

1. Personalize your space:

   • Arrange space systematically for efficiency
   • Create designated areas for different activities
   • Add small comfort improvements regularly

2. Establish routines:

   • Maintain regular shelter maintenance schedule
   • Create consistent morning and evening procedures
   • Develop normal patterns centered on shelter base

3. Build incrementally:

   • Start with essential protection
   • Improve in stages rather than attempting perfection immediately
   • Celebrate each improvement as tangible progress

Remember that in survival situations, your shelter represents far more than physical protection—it becomes the foundation of your psychological resilience and ultimately determines your capacity to make sound decisions regarding other survival priorities.

Fundamental Navigation Concepts

Navigation in wilderness settings requires understanding both the tools available to you and the natural indicators that can guide your journey when tools are unavailable or unreliable.

Cardinal Directions

The four main cardinal directions form the foundation of all navigation:

• North (N): 0° or 360°
• East (E): 90°
• South (S): 180°
• West (W): 270°

Intercardinal (ordinal) directions provide more precise bearings:

• Northeast (NE): 45°
• Southeast (SE): 135°
• Southwest (SW): 225°
• Northwest (NW): 315°

Secondary intercardinal directions offer further precision:

• North-northeast (NNE): 22.5°
• East-northeast (ENE): 67.5°
• East-southeast (ESE): 112.5°
• South-southeast (SSE): 157.5°
• South-southwest (SSW): 202.5°
• West-southwest (WSW): 247.5°
• West-northwest (WNW): 292.5°
• North-northwest (NNW): 337.5°

Navigation Terminology

• Bearing: Directional angle in degrees from your position to a target
• Azimuth: Angular measurement from 0-360° clockwise from North
• Heading: Direction of travel measured in degrees
• Waypoint: Specific location defined by coordinates
• Declination: Angular difference between magnetic and true North
• Triangulation: Determining position using bearings from multiple known points
• Handrail: Linear feature parallel to travel direction used as reference
• Baseline: Known linear feature perpendicular to travel direction
• Attack point: Easily identifiable feature near destination
• Catching feature: Obvious feature that signals you've gone too far

Map Fundamentals

Map Scales

• Large scale maps (e.g., 1:24,000): Show smaller areas in greater detail
• Medium scale maps (e.g., 1:100,000): Balance between detail and coverage
• Small scale maps (e.g., 1:250,000): Show large areas with less detail

Scale is represented as a ratio where the first number is the measurement on the map and the second is the corresponding distance in the real world. For example, on a 1:24,000 scale map, 1 inch represents 24,000 inches (2,000 feet) in the real world.

Contour Lines

• Contour interval: Vertical distance between contour lines
• Index contours: Darker lines every fifth contour, labeled with elevation
• Closely spaced contours: Indicate steep terrain
• Widely spaced contours: Indicate gentle slopes
• Concentric circles: Hills (higher elevation inside) or depressions (lower elevation inside)
• V-shapes in contours: Point upstream in valleys and downstream on ridges

Map Symbols and Colors

• Blue: Water features (lakes, rivers, streams)
• Green: Vegetation (forests, woodlands)
• White: Open areas (fields, clearings)
• Black: Cultural features (roads, buildings, boundaries)
• Brown: Topographic features (contour lines)
• Red/Purple: Important roads, boundaries, or survey information
• Urban areas: Typically pink or gray shading

UTM Grid System

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system divides the world into 60 zones, each 6° of longitude wide.

• Eastings: Horizontal grid lines measured in meters from zone's central meridian
• Northings: Vertical grid lines measured in meters from the equator
• Format typically shown as: Zone Number + Letter + Easting + Northing
• Example: "10T 0559741 4928593"

Compass Navigation

Compass Components

• Magnetic needle: Red end points to magnetic North
• Rotating bezel: Marked in degrees (0-360°)
• Direction of travel arrow: Points the way you intend to go
• Orienting arrow: Aligns with magnetic needle when taking bearing
• Orienting lines: Parallel lines that align with map meridians
• Index line: Marks where to read bearing from bezel
• Sighting mirror (on some models): Allows more precise bearings
• Clinometer (on some models): Measures slope angles

Taking a Bearing from Map to Field

1. Place compass edge along line from your position to destination
2. Rotate compass housing until orienting lines align with map meridians
3. Read bearing from index line on compass housing
4. Adjust for declination if necessary
5. Hold compass level with direction of travel arrow pointing away from you
6. Rotate your body until red needle aligns with orienting arrow
7. Follow direction of travel arrow to destination

Taking a Field Bearing to Map

1. Point direction of travel arrow at target in field
2. Rotate compass housing until red needle aligns with orienting arrow
3. Read bearing from index line
4. Adjust for declination if necessary
5. Place compass on map with edge through your known position
6. Rotate entire compass until orienting lines align with map meridians
7. Draw line along compass edge to identify target location

Declination Adjustment

Magnetic declination is the angular difference between true North (geographic) and magnetic North. Declination varies by location and changes over time